Por anarchist writer
Como foi amplamente divulgado, Paul Krugman ganhou este ano o Nobel de economia pelo seu trabalho sobre teoria do comércio.
Krugman é um keynesiano neoclássico de centro esquerda. Na campanha eleitoral de 2000 gastou muito tempo alertando sobre os esforços da administração Bush e seus colaboradores. Por exemplo, nos anos noventa ele refutou as afirmações da direita de que a desigualdade não estava aumentando nos Estados Unidos e que nada realmente poderia ser feito sobre isto. A partir de 2000 ele trouxe esse tema à tona novamente.
De forma surpreendente, alguns direitistas passaram a qualificá-lo como “esquerdista”, “anticapitalista” e até mesmo “socialista”. O fato de ele ser laureado com o prêmio irritou a direita e divertiu a esquerda.
O Prêmio Nobel de economia nem sempre galhardeia os melhores. Milton Friedman e Von Hayek foram “homenageados” nos anos setenta em detrimento de Joan Robinson, Nicholas Kaldor e Michal Kalecki (todos eles rejeitaram as economias neoclássicas e, em vários aspectos, as socialistas). Kaldor, por exemplo, demoliu repetidamente a teoria de ciclo de negócio de Von Hayek (que ostensivamente justificou o prêmio) nos anos trinta, antes de mover o açoite sobre o monetarismo de Friedman. Kalecki apenas conseguiu desenvolver os conceitos fundamentais de Keynes independentemente da Teoria Geral e os publicou primeiro. Robinson expôs os problemas fundamentais da economia neoclássica, especialmente a teoria da produtividade marginal. Há alguns anos premiaram as idéias de Edmund Phelps, para domesticar a classe trabalhadora, pela teoria da taxa de desemprego não acelerando a inflação. (Deveriam analisar Karl Marx, como claramente demonstrou, ou Kalecki que previu o impacto do pleno emprego corroendo o poder capitalista no local de trabalho).
Em termos do funcionamento do comércio sua teoria baseia-se na (falida) principal corrente neoclássica. Como Steve Keen destacou, “o agente representativo foi uma gambiarra inventada [...] para contornar o problema de que, em geral, as preferências dos indivíduos não poderiam ser agregadas [...] representantes dos agentes macroeconômicos chegaram a assumir que a economia consiste de um indivíduo único, produzindo e consumindo uma única mercadoria. Porém complexo poderia ser o raciocínio usado por tais aficionados como Paul Krugman, o reino da aplicabilidade desta teoria é o mesmo de Robinson Crusoé, vivendo de cocos antes da chegada do índio sexta-feira.” (Debunking Economics, pág. 212). Apenas o economista radical Stephen A. Marglin (no seu recente livro, The Dismal Science), pelo que sabemos, apresentou um experimento sobre como o livre comércio impacta uma economia com classes.
Dado que o livre-câmbio (baseado na teoria da vantagem comparativa de Ricardo é uma posição ideológica predominante) é surpreendente como poucos (ou nenhum!) países se industrializaram por este meio (inclusive Hong Kong). Nesse aspecto, o quase desconhecido Frederick List tem repetidamente provado estar certo. Assim, a obra de Krugman, embora inovadora, foi construída sobre bases fracas.
Na realidade, Krugman é quase um economista neoclássico. Isto pode ser visto pelo que escreve na introdução do seu livro “the prevalence of oligopoly” quando admite que “[o oligopólio] é mais comum que competição perfeita ou monopólio.” Porém, “a análise do oligopólio revela alguns quebra-cabeças para o quais não há nenhuma solução fácil” como “analisar oligopólio é bem mais difícil e complexo que competição perfeita.” Por quê? “Quando tentamos analisar o oligopólio, o modo usual como os economistas pensam -- perguntando como os indivíduos pessoalmente interessados se comportariam, e analisando suas interações -- não funciona como se poderia esperar.” Assegura, assim, que não há nenhuma necessidade de reconsiderar o “modo habitual” da análise econômica diante de algo tão marginal quanto as formas mais comuns de mercado, pois, por sorte, “a indústria se comporta 'quase' como se fosse perfeitamente competitiva.” (Paul Krugman e Robin Wells, Economics, pág. 383, pág. 365 e pág. 383) O que é no mínimo, cômodo.
Há alguns anos, eu li uma pesada crítica a Krugman por William B. Greider, em One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism (The Accidental Theorist). Ele a usa para “ilustrar um paradoxo: Você não pode fazer uma análise econômica séria a menos que esteja disposto a ser brincalhão. Teoria econômica não é uma coleção de receitas prescritas por figuras de autoridade pomposas. Principalmente, é um zoológico de experimentações ponderadas – parábolas, se preferirem – onde se pretende capturar a lógica dos processos econômicos de uma forma simplificada.” E ele apresenta uma:
“Imagine uma economia que produza apenas duas coisas: cachorros quentes e pães. Os consumidores nesta economia exigem que todo cachorro quente venha com um pão, e vice-versa. Sendo o trabalho é a única contribuição para a produção [...] Suponha que nossa economia inicialmente empregue 120 milhões de trabalhadores que corresponde mais ou menos ao pleno emprego [...] Agora, suponha que as inovações tecnológicas permitam a um trabalhador produzir um cachorro quente por dia em vez de dois. E suponha que a economia faça uso deste incremento na produtividade para aumentar o consumo [...] Isto requer alguma realocação de mão-de-obra, com apenas 40 milhões de trabalhadores produzindo cachorros quentes, há 80 milhões de pães sendo produzidos.
“Então um jornalista famoso entra em cena. Ele dá uma olhada na recente história e declara que algo terrível aconteceu: Foram destruídos vinte milhões de postos de trabalho na produção de cachorro quente. Quando se aprofunda no assunto, descobre que a produção de cachorros quentes subiu 33 por cento, enquanto que o emprego recuou 33 por cento [...] Em suma, o capitalismo global está beirando a crise. Ele destaca suas conclusões alarmantes em um livro de 473 páginas; cheio de fatos surpreendentes [...] e pontuado com farpas ocasionais sobre a visão tacanha dos economistas convencionais [...]
“Enquanto isso, os economistas estão um pouco confusos, porque eles não podem entender o ponto totalmente. Sim, a mudança tecnológica conduziu a uma mudança na estrutura industrial do emprego. Mas não houve nenhuma perda de trabalho líquida [...] Em nossa economia hipotética é – ou deveria ser – óbvio que a redução do número de trabalhadores necessários para produzir um cachorro quente reduz o número de vagas no setor de cachorros quentes, mas cria um número igual no setor de pães, e vice-versa.”
Desta parábola, mentalmente concebida, Krugman extrai a conclusão óbvia de que a necessidade de mudança tecnológica não precisa ser temida, pois o mercado assegurará que os trabalhadores sejam transferidos para novas indústrias. Ele descarta a objeção de que esta “experiência do pensamento [é] muito simples nos contar qualquer coisa sobre o real mundo” argumentando que “se por ‘cachorros quentes’ você substitui ‘fabrica ' e por ‘pães’ você substitui ‘serviços ' minha história na verdade se parece muito com a história da economia estadunidense da geração passada.” Ele proclama que o erro de Greider foi “sistematicamente repudiar qualquer tipo de conselho e crítica que poderiam tê-lo salvado. Seu reconhecimento conspícuo não inclui nenhum economista competente [...] Testar uma idéia com a experiência de pensamentos aparentemente triviais, com histórias hipotéticas sobre economia simplificada em produtores de cachorros quentes e pães, está aquém de sua dignidade. E é precisamente por ele ser tão sério que suas idéias são tão tolas.” Consequentemente a conclusão: “É evidente que você só pode ganhar quando joga com a economia hipotética – ocupando-se de experiências no pensamento.”
Não me convenci nem um pouco quando li pela primeira vez estas coisas há alguns anos. Eu ainda rejeito e uma vez que Krugman está nos jornais, julguei que agora seria um bom momento para trazer isto à tona. Eu não nego a importância das experiências do pensamento e modelos simplificados, mas se você simplifica exageradamente a realidade então qualquer conclusão a ser tirada da experiência será profundamente fragilizada. Basta adotar um modelo irreal para produzir resultados enganosos.
Minhas objeções repousam no fato óbvio de que a pequena história de Krugman ignora tempo, classe e poder de mercado. Isto não é nenhuma novidade, uma vez que as economias neoclássicas foram desenvolvidas para combater a análise econômica socialista e assim focalizar indivíduos em vez de instituições e relações sociais. Em vez da teoria clássica do valor, que foi utilizada para mostrar a dinâmica de uma economia com o passar do tempo (e inadvertidamente mostrou o trabalho sendo explorado pelo capital), as economias neoclássicas começaram com uma quantia fixa de bens e assim tomaram um instantâneo da economia como seu ponto de partida. Com a produção ignorada, o preço era determinado através de demanda efetiva (algumas economias clássicas não negaram o fato dentro do curto prazo). Assim, economias neoclássicas estão baseadas em ignorar o tempo – na melhor das hipóteses compara dois instantâneos diferentes ignorando o que aconteceu entre eles.
Isto impacta os próximos dois fatores ignorados, classe e poder de mercado. O modelo de Krugman, claramente, está baseado em trabalhadores sem menção de patrões. A suposição é que economia capitalista seja um auto-emprego, algo sem capitalistas! Dado que há classes, com lucros para capital e trabalho, em qualquer economia real capitalista, esta simplificação se torna simplesmente enganosa. O ganho em produtividade, embora esquecido nas suposições neoclássicas, precisa ser compartilhado igualmente entre as classes. Há uma luta por esse ganho.
Isto conduz a minha próxima objeção: ignorar o poder do mercado. Desemprego em massa em uma economia significará que os trabalhadores empregados temerão enfrentar seus patrões. Eles estarão bem atentos observando que há outros desejando tomar o lugar deles e, como resultado, é previsível que os salários caiam e que o lucro do crescimento na produtividade se concentre nas mãos dos patrões (não é a toa que o desemprego coexiste com salários baixos, não com salários altos). Este aumento no poder de mercado do patrão causado pelo desemprego aumenta a desigualdade enquanto faz os salários diminuir ou estagnar. Eventualmente, os trabalhadores nos setores afetados achariam trabalho em outro lugar, mas enquanto isso não acontece os trabalhadores tem seu poder econômico corroído, seus sindicatos debilitados, o crescimento dos salários fica aquém do crescimento da produtividade e assim por diante.
Assim, com o passar do tempo o emprego se ajustaria aos dois setores da economia, mas a balança do poder de classe e os níveis de desigualdade dentro da sociedade seriam fundamentalmente diferentes. Tudo isso é ignorado pelo modelo simplista de Krugman.
Krugman menciona a “geração passada” na história estadunidense. O modelo alternativo proposto aqui é, basicamente, exatamente o que aconteceu nos Estados Unidos (e em qualquer outro lugar) desde os anos setenta. Ironicamente, Krugman lamenta precisamente este desenvolvimento em seu novo livro (The Conscience of a Liberal). Não há, diz ele, “dúvida que o comércio dos EUA” com os países do Terceiro Mundo “alarga a desigualdade” e “reduz oportunidades de trabalho para trabalhadores americanos menos-qualificados.” (pág. 135) Que é uma melhoria na defesa ortodoxa prévia dele da globalização nos anos noventa. Ele também aponta para “mudanças em instituições como os sindicatos, fortalecendo-as” (pág. 136) como outro fator que aumenta a desigualdade, argumentando que os sindicatos tiveram um “efeito direto” na igualdade pelos seus próprios acordos salariais e um indireto, quando eles “elevaram os salários dos trabalhadores menos qualificados” na medida em que os acordos sindicais eram “reflexo do mercado como um todo.” (pág. 149) Significativamente: “Se os ganhos em produtividade fossem compartilhados uniformemente pela mão-de-obra, hoje a renda do trabalhador típico seria aproximadamente 35 por cento mais alta do que no começo dos anos 70.” (pág. 128) Ao invés disso, a ela não passou de 10%.
Conforme ele disse: “No fim, naturalmente, devem ser testadas idéias contra fatos.” Eu sei que em tempos de economia neoclássica, poder e classe, embora ignorados, existem. Uma vez que estes fatores sejam levados em conta, a história de Krugman poderá ser vista como ela é. Seu próprio trabalho subseqüente pode, particularmente, ser, em parte, usado como evidência para outro pensamento-experiência que não subtraia os elementos essenciais de qualquer real economia capitalista.
Assim se este prêmio conduzir mais pessoas a lerem os ataques de Krugman à equipe de Bush e seus argumentos bem documentados sobre a explosão de desigualdade nos Estados Unidos então, eu sugeriria, seria ótimo. Espero, entretanto, que eles vejam as limitações tanto de sua economia estruturada no neoclássico como das políticas tipo New Deal, e mudem para algo mais radical em termos de análise e soluções à questão social.
Traduzido pelo Taborita de http://anarchism.pageabode.com/anarcho/on-paul-krugman
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فني نجار بالرياض
استطاع فني نجار بالرياض أن يقوم بعمل رائع على مدار سنوات سابقة تمكن من خلالها من اكتساب رضا العملاء، فسواء كنت شركة أو مؤسسة أو حتي فرد، فيمكنك التعامل مع فني نجار بالرياض يتميز بشغل احترافي متميز قادر على إنجاز وتحقيق متطلباتك مهما كانت نوعها وحجمها بشكل احترافي ومتميز لأن فني نجار بالرياض مدرب على أعلي مستوي ويستخدم أحدث الأدوات والمعدات الكهربائية والفنية التى تمكنه من إنجاز عمليات الفك والتركيب بإحترافيه عالية دون وجود أي خدش أو تلف .. كما يمكن أن يتم تنفيذ العمليات المتخصصة لتصنيع قطع الأثاث التالفة وإحلالها بقطع جديدة حتي تستطيع أن تعطي لأثاثك القديم رونقه.
نجار غرف نوم بالرياض
تعتبر غرفة النوم هي أهم قطع الأثاث الموجودة بالمنزل أهمية، والتى يتوجب الإهتمام بها والمحافظة عليها لأن الفرد يقضي فيها أكثر من ثلث يومه، والتى تؤثر بشكل كبير على طبيعة باقي اليوم، لذلك قد يلجأ البعض إلى الاستعانة بنجار غرف نوم بالرياض للقيام بعملية صيانة لقطع الأثاث، أو إحلال وتجديد القطع التالفة واستبدالها بقطع جديدة، كما يمكن أن يقوم نجار غرف نوم بالرياض بتغيير ألوان الدهانات والقيام برش ودهان غرف النوم بطريقة جديدة وبألوان مختلفة تعطي للغرفة روحا جديدا، وتجعلك تشعر كأنها مثل الجديدة دون أن تتحمل تكلفة شراء غرفة جديدة مما يقلل من تلك الأموال التى تدفعها، وتجعلك تستمتع أكثر بها.
عزل خزانات بالمدينة المنورة
من أولى اهتمام شركتنا هو عزل الخزانات وتحديداً الخزانات الأسمنتية والخزانات الأرضية وعزل الخزانات من الداخل لان عدم القيام بعمل غزل الخزان يتسبب في تسريب الخزان واختلاط مياه الصرف الصحي بماء الشرب مما يؤثر على الصحة العامة،
فشركة تنظيف خزانات بالمدينة تستخدم أفضل مواد عزل الخزانات الألمانية والتي تمنع التسرب تماماً،
فالشركة تقدم أنواع متعددة من العزل حيث يوجد لدينا العزل المائي والحراري الذي يستخدم فيه مواد يتم استيرادها من الخارج والعزل الايبوكسي وهو مصرح به من قبل وزارة الصحة.
فعمليات العزل تعتبر دقيقة،
لذلك يجب القيام بها بالشكل الصحيح والاعتماد على العمالة المحترفة في تلك العملية، وهذا ما تضمنه لك شركة تنظيف خزانات بالمدينة المنورة النسر الذهبي
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