por Alex Myller
Observação importante: O texto abaixo é resultante de uma tradução eletrônica, portanto, não nos responsabilizamos por eventuais erros e inacurácia.
Introdução
A modernidade, com seus ideais de liberdade e autonomia individual, remodelou fundamente a problemática em torno da obrigação política, ou melhor, do dever dos súditos – ora cidadãos – de cumprir as normas estatais. O deslocamento da fonte do poder daquele antigo soberano divinal hereditário, seja para o indivíduo-proprietário lockiano, seja para o povo rousseauniano, foi acompanhado da construção de justificações filosóficas para a submissão à lei moderna.
A partir da idéia-base iluminista de uma racionalidade humana comum e universal e de um novo artefato denominado contrato social foi possível alicerçar a autoridade da produção normativa do Estado Moderno. É que nessa nova cultura a idéia de autoridade arbitrária parecia repugnante. Com efeito, é na modernidade que “a autoridade começa a ser experimentada como heteronomia, a imposição de uma vontade alheia, que só faz sentido para com os incapazes” e justamente por isso “a pessoa capaz não se curva diante da autoridade ou da tradição: curva-se apenas diante da razão e de sua própria consciência” (LOPES, 2002, p. 216). Para se perceber o poder e a amplitude da influência dessas idéias, basta tomar em conta que a legitimação democrática da obrigação política, contemporaneamente, pouco ou nada avançou além da consideração liberal de identidade entre legislador e destinatário das normas.
Nossa época, filha da modernidade e das decepções do século XX, inscreveu a democracia, em sua versão representativa, como a única forma respeitável de governo, ao menos para as nações ocidentais. Paradoxalmente, na lógica de uma democracia amalgamada ao voto individual, são óbvios os riscos permanentes de uma ditadura da maioria. Como pode um cidadão suportar esses riscos? E mais, como se posicionar diante de situações em que a vontade estatal, presumidamente a vontade pública, se volta para caminhos que parecem promover a indignidade? Questões assim, embora mais específicas, freqüentaram o imaginário de um jovem poeta e ensaísta norte-americano, que estudou e formou-se em Harvard, de nome Henry David Thoreau.
Nascido no interior de Massachusetts, na pequena cidade de Concord, Thoreau foi um defensor do abolicionismo e um precursor do ambientalismo hodierno, mas se tornou muito mais notável devido a um despretensioso escrito, postumamente denominado Desobediência civil, uma apologia da resistência individual ao governo civil, uma oposição moral à injustiça estatal. Neste breve ensaio, pretende-se evidenciar a fundamentação ética que o norte-americano deu à desobediência das leis estatais; mais que isso, aponta-se a crença de Thoreau em leis morais naturais, acessíveis a cada indivíduo pela consciência, como o alicerce de seu discurso desobediente.
fig1. Thoreau, La vida sublime, Maximilien Le Roy e A.Dan |
A noção thoreauniana de desobediência civil
Embora Thoreau jamais tenha usado o consagrado termo desobediência civil, há certo consenso de que pertence a ele a primeira fala da discussão contemporânea em torno do tema (Cf. COSTA, 2000, p. 31; PONTES, 2006, p. 29; PRANDO, 2002, p. 68). O seu polêmico e contundente escrito, publicado em 1849 sob o título de Resistence to civil government e só postumamente renomeado para Civil desobedience, consiste num verdadeiro conclame à desobediência frente às determinações injustas do Estado. Aqui nos interessa sobretudo a identificação do fundamento dessa desobediência thoureauniana, vez que parece apelar o norte-americano para uma concepção de moralidade universal (natural) para alicerçar seu discurso. Nesse sentido, o escrito é abordado progressivamente, com indicação dos pontos onde se revela esse pressuposto ético-filosófico.
De início e sem delongas Thoreau anuncia sua posição, aceitando o já famoso lema de que “o melhor governo é o que menos governa”, mas esclarecendo seu conteúdo no sentido de que “o melhor governo é o que não governa absolutamente nada. Tão-logo os homens estejam preparados, esse será o gênero de governo que terão” (THOREAU, 1983, p. 385; THOREAU, 2003, p. 13). Não há como negar o parentesco entre essa posição e a dos grandes pensadores anarquistas, como Proudhon, Bakunin ou Kropotkin, a ponto de um estudioso do quilate de George Woodcock destacar que Thoureau havia “escrito alguns dos mais extraordinários argumentos a favor do indivíduo e contra o Estado” e que “parece adaptar-se melhor do que Emerson ao modelo anarquista” (WOODCOCK, 2006, pp. 241242). Logo, discordamos pelo menos parcialmente de que Thoreau, quanto à noção de desobediência civil “tenha contribuído a restringi-la teoricamente a um matiz liberal” ou simplesmente que esposasse uma “concepção liberal de cunho mais individualista”, segundo sustenta Ana Carolina Amaral Pontes (2006, pp. 29 e 36).
Com efeito, não se pode pensar diferente de alguém que afirma categoricamente que “os governos são a prova de como os homens podem obter sucesso na ação de oprimir em proveito próprio, sem se importar se a opressão se volta também contra eles” (THOREAU, 1983, p. 386; THOREAU, 2003, p. 14). E conquanto possamos ouvir os ecos dos contratualistas clássicos na sua colocação do governo como artifício pelo qual os homens deixariam em paz uns aos outros, é notável que Thoreau refletia sobre o processo político norte-americano “que havia tornado a democracia doente, na medida em que o governo já não representava as aspirações da época da independência, ao manter a escravidão e ao invadir o México para se aproveitar de seus vastos territórios” (COSTA, 2006, p. 252).
Os primeiros avassaladores parágrafos da obra são alguma forma ponderados pelo próprio Thoreau. É que por motivações seguramente ligadas à urgência da mudança no quadro social norte-americano, em especial à abolição da escravidão e ao fim da guerra contra o México, ele afirma querer se expressar por meio de um raciocínio prático e desejar de imediato tão-somente um governo melhor. Ele parece compreender, portanto, que os homens não se encontravam preparados para o governo que não governasse, isto é, para a ausência de governo.
No entanto, Thoreau desconfia profundamente do governo da maioria, ou seja, da forma de legitimação democrática que se tornou corrente no mundo ocidental, por atribuir a sua admissão ao simples fato da maioria ser fisicamente mais forte. Por isso levanta questões destruidoras acerca do conflito entre consciência individual e norma pública-estatal, decidindo-se pela prevalência da primeira, sustentando que “devemos ser primeiramente homens, e só posteriormente súditos”. Não à toa, portanto, ele assevera que o respeito dedicado aos direitos deve ser superior ao endereçado à lei, mesmo porque esta “jamais tornou os homens sequer um pouco mais justos” (THOREAU, 1983, p. 387; THOREAU, 2003, p. 15).
Ademais, o autor critica em seu discurso Escravidão em Massachusetts a posição de juízes e advogados de sua época, que discutiam se a Lei dos Escravos Fugitivos era ou não constitucional, o que para ele pouco importava, pois “em questões morais e vitais importantes como esta, é tão impertinente perguntar se a lei é constitucional ou não, quanto perguntar se ela é lucrativa ou não” (THOREAU, 1993, p. 27).
fig2. Thoreau, La vida sublime, Maximilien Le Roy e A.Dan |
Thoureau e desobediência civil
O pensador de Concord alerta que o respeito reverente pela lei tem conduzido até os bem-intencionados a atuarem como verdadeiros propagadores da injustiça. E, demonstrado seu desgosto por instituições de repressão como a polícia e o exército, cita um caso clássico de concreção legal da injustiça: a marcha de homens para a guerra, um atestado de que “nesse contexto, a massa de homens serve ao Estado não na sua qualidade de homens mas sim como máquinas, entregando seus corpos” e “na maioria das vezes não há qualquer livre exercício de escolha ou de avaliação moral” (THOREAU, 1983, p. 388; THOREAU, 2003, p. 16). Homens assim, para Thoreau, se igualam às coisas ou valem tanto quanto os animais, embora ele mesmo aponte que comumente sejam estimados como cidadãos exemplares. Como se vê, ele nega veementemente que o indivíduo aja como um simples meio, manejado pelo Estado na realização de seus comandos e determinações, desprezando seu guia pessoal e inalienável que consistiria justamente na consciência.
Desse modo, Thoreau questiona a velha retórica de justificação da obrigação política, duvidando da capacidade da maioria sempre governar com acerto e justiça e propondo francamente a questão da desobediência (1983, p. 395; 2003, p. 23):
“Leis injustas existem. Devemos submeter-nos a elas e cumpri-las, ou devemos tentar emendá-las e obedecer a elas até sua reforma, ou devemos transgredi-las de imediato? Em uma sociedade com o gênero de governo que temos, os homens em geral pensam que devem esperar até que tenham convencido a maioria a alterar essas leis. A opinião é de que a hipótese da resistência pode vir a ser um remédio pior do que o mal a ser combatido. E é exatamente o governo o culpado pela circunstância de o remédio ser de fato pior do que o mal. O governo é que faz tudo ficar pior. Por que o governo não é mais capaz e se antecipa para lutar pela reforma? Por que o governo não sabe valorizar sua sábia minoria? Por que chora e resiste antes de ser atacado? Por que ele não estimula a participação ativa dos cidadãos para que estes lhe mostrem suas falhas e para conseguir um desempenho melhor do que eles lhe exigem? Por que eles lhe exigem? Por que o governo sempre crucifica Jesus Cristo, e por que excomunga Copérnico e Lutero e qualifica Washington e Franklin de rebeldes?”
E proclama então o ensaísta que “O direito à revolução é reconhecido por todos, isto é, o direito de negar lealdade e de oferecer resistência ao governo sempre que se tornem grandes e insuportáveis sua tirania e ineficiência” (1983, p. 389; 2003, p. 17). Isto significa, conforme esclarece Nelson Nery Costa, que Thoreau “deu novas possibilidades à resistência”, pois “não se exigia mais a presença da vontade da maioria, nem que a crise política fosse total para a utilização desse instrumento da cidadania” (2000, p. 31).
Thoreau considera explicitamente em sua obra que a única obrigação que ele tem o direito de assumir é a de fazer, a qualquer tempo, o que pensar como correto (Cf. THOREAU, 1983, p. 387; THOREAU, 2003, p. 15). E ele afirmava isto por admitir um suposto ético fundamental, a crença na capacidade da consciência moral individual de separar o certo do errado, o justo do injusto. Muito dessa posição Thoreau devia à influência do Transcendentalismo (ele cresceu junto com esse movimento e foi amigo próximo de Emerson), que sustentava o mesmo princípio baseado na convicção da imanência de Deus na alma do indivíduo. (Cf. WHITERELL, 1995).
Portanto, há em nosso autor uma pré-consideração para o julgamento da ação estatal: leis mais elevadas, alcançáveis pelo indivíduo em sua consciência. Tal posição é uma outra forma de enunciar o jusnaturalismo, que a nosso ver é, em síntese profunda, uma concepção da moralidade como advinda da natureza (seja do mundo ou do homem). No eremita de Walden, como em muitos outros pensadores, “está a crença na existência de uma lei natural, em oposição às leis humanas, que faz com que todos os libertários confiem mais nos impulsos espontâneos do que em regras aplicadas mecanicamente” (WOODCOCK, 2006, p. 242).
Com efeito, Thoreau propõe no discurso Escravidão em Massachusetts a seus conterrâneos norte-americanos considerarem que “qualquer que seja a lei humana, nem um indivíduo nem uma nação podem cometer o menor ato de injustiça contra o mais obscuro indivíduo, sem ter de pagar a pena por isso” (1993, p. 22). O professor Jorge Guillermo Portela já havia apontado este aspecto da desobediência civil em sua tese de doutoramento, denominada La justificación iusnaturalista de la desobediencia civil y de la objeción de conciencia (A justificação jusnaturalista da desobediência civil e da objeção de consciência) Comentando a passagem acima, ensina (PORTELA, 2005, p. 115):
fig3. Thoreau, La vida sublime, Maximilien Le Roy e A.Dan |
“Thoreau toca aqui um tema central, que deve ser tratado em toda investigação séria sobre a desobediência civil, e é a do fundamento moral do dissenso. Com efeito, o desobediente não executa seu ato porque sim, porque a política não lhe agrada ou crê que a lei é má: seu protesto se baseia em fundamentos morais, que calam muito fundo no mais profundo das relações entre direito, ética e política.”
O mesmo parece ter sido acertadamente percebido pela estudiosa Maria do Socorro da Silva Jatobá, que ao estudar comparativamente os casos de Antígona e Sócrates, explica que a obediência deste último às leis humanas estava condicionada à coincidência destas com os preceitos divinos. E acrescenta lucidamente sobre Sócrates que (2001, pp. 88-89);
“Segundo o princípio que ele mesmo apresentara, qual seja o da absoluta necessidade de se obedecer a um melhor, seja deus, seja homem, temos, então, um outro problema: as leis humanas são inferiores ao compromisso firmado com a divindade. Contudo, há um princípio superior a todos, porque a todos fundamenta (...). Acima de tudo, está a verdade. Portanto, não se deve tudo fazer ou tudo dizer para evitar a morte. Deve-se, antes de tudo, ter um compromisso moral, que deve sustentar todas as prescrições legais com a verdade.”
Parece incrível a concordância com as afirmações do próprio Thoreau (1983, p. 403; 2003, p. 30):
“Por conseguinte, o Estado não observa intencionalmente o sentimento intelectual ou moral de um homem, mas apenas seu corpo, seus sentidos. É uma instituição carente de gênio superior ou de honestidade, dotada apenas de demasiada força física. Mas eu não nasci para ser coagido. Hei de respirar da forma que eu mesmo escolher. Veremos quem é mais forte. Que força tem uma multidão? Só os que obedecem a uma lei mais alta do que a minha é que poderão me coagir. Esses me obrigam a ser como eles”
E, mais ainda, quando ele sustenta que “um povo ou um indivíduo tem de fazer justiça a qualquer custo. Se arranquei injustamente a tábua de salvação de um homem que se afoga, sou obrigado a devolvê-la, ainda que eu me afogue””. (390; 2003, p. 18).
Portanto, aceitando unicamente a submissão aos que obedecem a leis superiores as suas próprias, Thoreau indubitavelmente se refere a leis morais ou da consciência. E, socraticamente, admite que homens assim apenas obrigam que ele próprio se torne melhor do que é, tornando-se como eles. E, tão eticamente fundado quanto o próprio Sócrates, afirma que nem toda vida vale a pena ser vivida, pois é preferível morrer pela justiça do que cometer injustiças e sobreviver às custas delas, talvez para ser perseguido e apontado pelas leis até mesmo no Hades, como avisava o mestre grego a Críton às portas de sua morte.
fig4. Thoreau, La vida sublime, Maximilien Le Roy e A.Dan |
Referências Bibliográficas
COSTA, Nelson Nery. Ciência Política, 2. ed, Rio de Janeiro: Forense, 2006.
COSTA, Nelson Nery. Teoria e realidade da desobediência
civil, 2. ed, Rio de Janeiro: Forense, 2000.
JATOBÁ, Maria do Socorro da Silva. Sócrates e Antígona: os desobedientes. In: Caderno de Atas da Primeira Reunião da Sociedade Brasileira de Platonistas (ANPOF), suplemento ao Boletim do CPA, n. 10 - ago/set-2000, p. 79-92.
LOPES, Reinaldo de Lima. O Direito na história: lições introdutórias, 2. ed., São Paulo: Max Limonad, 2002.
PONTES, Ana Carolina Amaral de. Desobediência civil como instrumento na construção da cidadania – um estudo à luz do conceito de Hannah Arendt. Recife: UFPE, 2006. 253 p. Dissertação (Mestrado). Disponível em: http://www.bdtd.ufpe.br/tedeSimplificado//
tde_ busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=796. Acesso em: 28 Jul 2007.
PORTELA, Jorge Guillermo. La justificación iusnaturalista de la desobediencia civil y de la objeción de conciencia. Buenos Aires: Educa, 2005.
PRANDO, Felipe Cardoso de Mello. Desobediência Civil: uma possibilidade para a realização dos direitos humanos. Florianópolis: UFSC, 2002. 1v. Dissertação (Mestrado). Disponível em: http://www.tede.ufsc.br/teses/PDPC0683.pdf.
Acesso em: 30 Jul 2007.
THOREAU, Henry David. A Desobediência Civil e outros escritos. Trad. Alex Marins, São Paulo: Martin Claret, 2003.
THOREAU, Henry David. Walden and Civil Desobedience, New York: Penguin Books, 1983.
WITHERELL, Elizabeth. Life and times of Henry David Thoreau. In: The writings of Henry D. Thoreau Project. Disponível em: http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/thoreau_life.html. Acesso em: 07 Ago 2007.
WOODCOK, George. História das idéias e movimentos anarquistas. 2 volumes. Trad. Júlia Tettamanzy, Porto Alegre: L&PM, 2007.
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